On this page
This page: Public explanation accompanying an author working paper.
What is available: page, manuscript, data and code
- This web page
- Read the definitions, example and source links here without an account. This is a public explanation, not the manuscript or a ranked comparison.
- Original paper
- The manuscript is not hosted here. The external ResearchGate record is a separate research object with its own access conditions; this update does not change its release status.
- Data and codebook
- No CSV or codebook is published or downloadable through this website. Their mention in the source manuscript is not proof of a publicly available, validated dataset.
- Code
- No analysis code is supplied with this web explanation. The worked example uses invented numbers only; it does not analyze an actual dataset.
The short answer
A headline deportation count does not answer the question until you know what it counts. Removals, returns and Title 42 expulsions describe different actions. Even the label “removals” needs a source-specific check: ICE’s FY2024 report includes returns in its removal figures. Comparing that total with a removals-only series would compare different measures.
This explanation shows how to read a comparison. It does not identify which president deported more people or establish that a policy caused a change.
Supporting sources: DHS / Office of Homeland Security Statistics · U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Three terms that need separate columns
The FY2022 report explains that the forms of return it describes still involve mandatory repatriation despite the voluntary label. These definitions describe that report’s categories; they are not advice about an individual immigration case.
| Term | What it describes | What to check |
|---|---|---|
| Removal | Departure carried out under a removal order. | Whether the source uses this narrower meaning or combines removals with returns. |
| Return | Departure without a removal order; the FY2022 report discusses voluntary return, voluntary departure and withdrawal of an application for admission. | Do not read “voluntary” as meaning all such departures are free of enforcement pressure. |
| Title 42 expulsion | An expulsion under public-health authority, discussed separately from Title 8 immigration processes in the FY2022 report. | Whether the total includes these events, and which reporting period it covers. |
Supporting sources: DHS / OHSS Yearbook · DHS / Office of Homeland Security Statistics · DHS / Office of Homeland Security Statistics
Interior and border are a different question
The action taken and the enforcement context are separate classifications. “Removal or return?” asks about the action; “interior or border?” asks about its context. Do not use the second pair as substitutes for the first.
ICE’s FY2024 report presents overall removals, interior removals and removals by arresting agency as distinct breakdowns. An ICE-carried-out departure need not mean ICE made the initial arrest: the report includes people transferred from CBP. Read each breakdown’s definition rather than equating the agency carrying out departure with an interior case.
Supporting sources: U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Worked example — invented numbers
Imagine two fictional reports covering the same period and agencies. Report A lists 100 removals. Report B lists 150 departures: 80 removals plus 70 returns. Comparing 150 with 100 makes B look larger. Comparing removals alone gives 80 versus 100: B has 20 fewer removals. The headline reverses because the categories differ.
This is a hypothetical teaching example. Every number is invented; none describes an administration or reproduces the manuscript’s table. For real reports, first align definitions, periods and agency coverage, then compare like with like.
What this comparison cannot establish
Supporting sources: DHS / Office of Homeland Security Statistics · U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
- This page supplies no harmonized time series and no presidential ranking. The title’s 2000–2025 span describes the original paper, not a dataset reproduced here.
- The OHSS report covers fiscal year 2022; ICE’s selected figures cover fiscal years 2019–2024. The FY2024 removal data are current through September 30, 2024; ICE describes FY2019–2023 data as locked. Those boundaries must travel with any reuse.
- A count alone cannot establish policy effectiveness, fairness, individual circumstances or a causal effect of presidential decisions. Those questions require additional evidence and an explicit research design.
Annotation guide — six fields to mark before comparing totals
Treat each headline number as a labeled measurement rather than a self-explanatory total. Before comparing two figures, annotate the action, reporting period, agency scope, enforcement context, unit counted, and legal authority used by each source.
| Field | Why it matters | Question to ask |
|---|---|---|
| Action | Removal, return, and Title 42 expulsion are different categories. | Are both totals counting the same action? |
| Reporting period | Federal reports commonly use fiscal years rather than calendar years. | What exact dates belong to each total? |
| Agency coverage | DHS, CBP, ICE, and component reports can have different scopes. | Which agencies and transfers are included? |
| Enforcement context | Border-related and interior activity are separate classifications. | Does the figure describe where enforcement began or who carried out the departure? |
| Unit counted | A table may count actions, cases, encounters, or people. | Are the two sources using the same unit? |
| Legal authority | Reporting categories can change when the governing authority changes. | Does a policy or legal change interrupt the series? |
Supporting sources: DHS / Office of Homeland Security Statistics · DHS / Office of Homeland Security Statistics · U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Annotation — agency role is not the same as enforcement context
ICE's FY2024 report presents overall removals, interior removals, and removals by arresting agency as separate breakdowns. A departure carried out by ICE therefore should not automatically be read as an interior arrest.
When reading a headline total, mark both the agency that first encountered or arrested the person and the agency that carried out the departure when the source provides those fields.
Supporting sources: U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Annotation — administration labels need a declared date rule
Agency reports are organized around reporting periods and administrative categories, not around a built-in presidential scorecard. Fiscal years also do not align exactly with inauguration dates.
A reproducible administration-level comparison should therefore state how transition periods are assigned before totals are compared.
A 30-second comparison checklist
- Underline the category in the claim: removal, return, expulsion, repatriation, encounter, case, or person.
- Circle the date range and mark fiscal year or calendar year.
- Write the reporting agency beside the number.
- Mark whether border and interior activity are combined or separated.
- Check whether a legal authority or reporting rule changes the series.
- Compare totals only after those annotations line up.
Sources supporting this explanation
- DHS / OHSS Yearbook. 2022 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, Table 39 (continued), printed p. 104 (PDF p. 112), footnotes 1–3. Series covers FY1892–FY2022. Defines removals, returns and public-health expulsions; distinguishes administrative and enforcement returns. Read supporting source ↗
- DHS / Office of Homeland Security Statistics. Immigration Enforcement Actions: 2022, printed pp. 5–6, ‘Repatriation Process’ and ‘Returns.’ Reporting period: FY2022. Supports the action categories and the qualification on voluntary returns. Read supporting source ↗
- DHS / Office of Homeland Security Statistics. Immigration Enforcement Actions: 2022, printed pp. 2–3, discussion of Title 42 and ‘COVID-19 Pandemic and Title 42 Expulsions.’ Reporting period: FY2022. Supports the distinction between public-health expulsions and Title 8 processing. Read supporting source ↗
- U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. FY2024 Annual Report, printed p. 31, Figure 23 and footnote 29; p. 32, Figure 25; p. 33, Figure 26. Figures cover FY2019–FY2024. Footnote 29 explains inclusion of returns, transfers to ERO and the data cutoff. Read supporting source ↗
What was reviewed
- Source checking
- Definitions and reporting conventions in this explanation were checked against the official DHS/OHSS FY2022 enforcement report and ICE FY2024 annual report on 6 September 2026. The manuscript’s comparison table and appended earlier draft were excluded.
- Editorial scope
- The 13 September 2026 annotation pass added a comparison schema, agency-role note, reporting-period note, and headline checklist. It did not add a harmonized dataset, ranking, or causal claim.
- Independent scholarly review
- No independent scholarly review is documented for this explanation. Source checking and editorial revision are not peer review.
Original paper record
- ResearchGate Harsh Wardhan, Siddhartha, Who Deported More? A Guide to Comparing Deportation Statistics (2025).Open source ↗
Source notes
- This public explanation accompanies the author-paper record. It does not reproduce the manuscript, prior draft, comparison table, CSV, or codebook.
- The annotation guide was added on 13 September 2026 as editorial reading guidance. It does not add a new dataset or an administration ranking.
Limitations and unresolved boundaries
- This remains an author working-paper record; the web explanation does not change its publication or review status.
- The complete manuscript and a validated comparison dataset are not supplied here. Assess the cited official sources directly.
- Before combining sources, verify whether each table counts people, actions, cases, encounters, or another unit.
- Administration-level use of fiscal-year statistics requires an explicit transition-period rule.
Publication and technical provenance
This public explanation accompanies the existing author-paper record. The manuscript, appended draft, and unverified comparison table are not published on this website.
Author-source provenance
Source fingerprint (SHA-256): a27b80308a585940ea9e8a98559f75c08beed334263befa254de545f4b7028ef
Copyright and any paper-specific license remain with the author. This page is a selected synopsis; the complete manuscript file is not hosted here.
Suggested citation
Siddhartha Harsh Wardhan. “Who Deported More? A Guide to Comparing Deportation Statistics.” Independent Observer, 13 October 2025.